Evrensel dil

Evrensel dil (bazen dünya dili,^[1] nadiren uluslararası dil^[2]^[3]), toplumdilbilimde coğrafi olarak yaygın olan ve farklı dil topluluklarının üyelerinin iletişim kurmasını mümkün kılan bir dildir. Bu terim aynı zamanda Esperanto gibi inşa edilmiş uluslararası yardımcı dillere atıfta bulunmak için de kullanılabilir.^[4]

İngilizce en önde gelen evrensel dil adayıdır. Bunun ötesinde, hangi dillerin yeterli olduğu konusunda akademik bir fikir birliği yoktur; Arapça, Fransızca, Rusça ve İspanyolca diğer olası evrensel dillerdir. Bazı yazarlar, Latince'nin daha önce bir evrensel dil olduğunu düşünmektedir.^[5]^[6]^[7]

Kavram[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir]

Evrensel dil teriminin çeşitli tanımları önerilmiştir; hangisinin kullanılacağı konusunda genel bir fikir birliği yoktur.^[8]^[9]

Kongolu dilbilimci Salikoko Mufwene tarafından önerilen bir tanım, "ana dilleri veya geçer dilleri (lingua franca) olarak ana vatanları dışında ve etnik veya ulusal olarak onlarla ilişkili olanlar dışındaki topluluklar tarafından konuşulan diller"dir.^[10] Dilbilimci Mohamed Benrabah, dünya dili terimini, Hollandalı sosyolog Abram de Swaan'ın kendi küresel dil sisteminde "süper merkezi diller" olarak adlandırdığı şeyle eşitler.^[11] İspanyol sosyo-dilbilimci Clare Mar-Molinero, bir dilin geçmesi gereken, demografi, dile yönelik tutumlar ve politik, yasal, ekonomik, bilimsel, teknolojik, akademik, eğitimsel ve kültürel alanlarla ilgili bir dizi test önermektedir.^[12]

Alman sosyo-dilbilimci Ulrich Ammon [de], bir şeyin dünya dili olup olmadığını belirleyen şeyin, onun "küresel işlevi" olduğunu, yani özellikle onu ana dil olarak paylaşmayan insanlar arasında küresel iletişim için kullanımı olduğunu söylüyor. bir geçer dil (lingua franca) olarak—yani katılımcıların hiçbirinin ana dili olmadığı iletişimde - en fazla ağırlığı taşıyan.^[13] Ammon, bir dizi küresellik göstergesi formüle eder, yani belirli bir dilin dünya dili olarak kabul edilebileceği kapsamı değerlendirmek için faydalı faktörler. Bu göstergelerin başında, anadili olmayanların sayısı gelir. Diğer bir gösterge de, küresellik için başlı başına bir ölçüt olmasa da, ampirik olarak onunla olumlu bir ilişki içinde olan ve dili daha çekici hale getirerek dolaylı olarak etkileyebilen anadili sayısıdır. Diğer potansiyel göstergeler, ekonomik güç (anadili konuşanların GSYİH'si olarak ölçülür), dili resmi dil olarak kullanan ülke sayısı ve bu ülkelerin coğrafi dağılımı, uluslararası ticari kullanımı ve bilimsel yayınlardaki yaygınlığıdır.^[14]

Aday diller[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir]

Arapça[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir]

Arapça, dünya çapındaki Müslüman topluluklar arasında bir ayin dili olduğu gerekçesiyle, bir geçer dil (lingua franca) olarak sınırlı kullanımı nedeniyle İngilizce ve Fransızcadan sonra ikinci kademe bir dil olmasına rağmen, Salikoko Mufwene tarafından bir dünya dili olarak tanımlanmıştır.^[15] Mohamed Benrabah bu argümanı, dilin ritüellerde kullanılmasının, dini bağlamların dışında mutlaka konuşma yeterliliğine çevrilmesi gerekmediği için eleştirir, ancak yine de de Swaan'ın küresel dil sisteminde süper merkezi bir dil olması nedeniyle onu bir evrensel dil olarak sınıflandırır.^[11]

İngilizce[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir]

Akademik fikir birliği, İngilizcenin bir evrensel dil olduğu ve İngiliz dilbilimciler David Crystal ve David Graddol gibi bazı yazarların onu tek dil olarak kabul edecek kadar ileri gittiği yönündedir. Çoğulcu bir yaklaşım benimseyen yazarlar yine de İngilizcenin en önde gelen evrensel dil olarak benzersiz bir konuma sahip olduğunu düşünürler; örneğin, Abram de Swaan'ın küresel dil sisteminde İngilizce, hiyerarşideki en yüksek konumun tek sahibidir: hipersantral dil.^[11] Alman sosyolinguist şablon: ara dil (interlanguage) bağlantısına göre, "Burada, bir dilin uluslararası veya küresel sıralaması için neredeyse hiçbir tanımlayıcı parametre veya gösterge yoktur; bu, dünya çapındaki günümüz dillerine uygulandığında, İngilizceyi en üstte yerleştirmez."^[16] Ammon ve Mufwene, İngilizceyi en önde gelen dünya dili olarak ayıran şeyin bir geçer dil (lingua franca)^[17]^[18] olarak kullanılması olduğunu öne sürerken, Crystal coğrafi dağılımına odaklanıyor.^[19]

Fransızca[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir]

Fransızca, de Swaan'ın küresel dil sisteminde süper merkezi bir dil statüsünden dolayı bir evrensel dil olarak tanımlanmıştır^[11] ve Salikoko Mufwene, Fransızcayı, Fransa dışında ne etnik ne de ulusal olarak onunla ilişkili olmayan insanlar tarafından bir geçer dil (lingua franca) veya yerel olarak konuşulmasına dayanarak böyle tanımlar.^[10]

Rusça[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir]

Rusça, de Swaan'ın küresel dil sisteminde merkezi bir dil olması nedeniyle bir evrensel dil olarak sınıflandırılmış^[11] ve Rusya dışında Rus olmayanlar tarafından yerel veya ortak dil olarak kullanılması nedeniyle Salikoko Mufwene tarafından bir evrensel dil olarak nitelendirilmiştir.^[10]

İspanyolca[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir]

İspanyolca, de Swaan'ın küresel dil sisteminde merkezi bir dil olması nedeniyle bir evrensel dil olarak sınıflandırılmış^[11] ve dünya çapında yabancı dil olarak konuşulması nedeniyle Alman toplumdilbilimci tarafından bir evrensel dil olarak kabul edilmiştir.^[20] Salikoko Mufwene ayrıca, bir geçer dil (lingua franca) olarak sınırlı kullanımı nedeniyle İngilizce ve Fransızca'dan sonra ikinci kademe bir dil olmasına rağmen, İspanya dışında ne etnik ne de ulusal olarak ilişkili olmayan insanlar tarafından yerel olarak kullanıldığı gerekçesiyle, onu bir evrensel dil olarak görüyor.^[21]

Kaynakça[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir]

^ Ammon, Ulrich (7 Ekim 2010), Coupland, Nikolas (Ed.), "World Languages: Trends and Futures", The Handbook of Language and Globalization, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, s. 101, doi:10.1002/9781444324068.ch4, ISBN 978-1-4443-2406-8
^ Ammon, Ulrich (1997), Stevenson, Patrick (Ed.), "To What Extent is German an International Language?", The German Language and the Real World: Sociolinguistic, Cultural, and Pragmatic Perspectives on Contemporary German (İngilizce), Clarendon Press, ss. 25-53, ISBN 978-0-19-823738-9, 9 Mayıs 2021 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi, erişim tarihi: 7 Haziran 2021
^ de Mejía, Anne-Marie (2002). Power, Prestige, and Bilingualism: International Perspectives on Elite Bilingual Education (İngilizce). Multilingual Matters. ss. 47-49. ISBN 978-1-85359-590-5. 9 Mayıs 2021 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 7 Haziran 2021. 'international language' or 'world language' [...] The following languages of wider communication, that may be used as first or as second or foreign languages, are generally recognised: English, German, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, Arabic, Russian and Chinese.
^ Ammon, Ulrich (1989). Status and Function of Languages and Language Varieties (İngilizce). Walter de Gruyter. s. 422. ISBN 978-3-11-086025-2. 10 Mayıs 2021 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 13 Şubat 2021. By the term world language approximately the following can be understood: Firstly, [...]. Secondly, international planned languages (e.g Esperanto, Ido, Interlingua).
^ Wright, Roger (2012), Hernández-Campoy, Juan Manuel; Conde-Silvestre, Juan Camilo (Ed.), "Convergence and Divergence in World Languages", The Handbook of Language and Globalization, John Wiley & Sons, s. 552, doi:10.1002/9781118257227.ch30, ISBN 978-1-4051-9068-8, 16 Nisan 2021 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi, erişim tarihi: 7 Haziran 2021, There is no generally agreed precise definition of what counts as a 'World' Language. For the purposes of this chapter, they can be defined as languages spoken over a wide geographical area, often as a result of previous colonization, and in many cases by native speakers of some other language. The category now includes Spanish, Portuguese, French, and English, but with reference to historically earlier periods the label has been applied to Latin [...]
^ Mufwene, Salikoko S. (7 Ekim 2010), Coupland, Nikolas (Ed.), "Globalization, Global English, and World English(es): Myths and Facts", The Handbook of Language and Globalization, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, s. 42, doi:10.1002/9781444324068.ch1, ISBN 978-1-4443-2406-8, I submit that, as in the case of that earlier 'world language,' Latin, it was the association with trade and (more) lucrative business that favored English over its competitors, both in the United States and around the world.
^ Crystal, David (2003). English as a global language (PDF) (2. bas.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. s. 190. ISBN 0-511-07862-5. OCLC 57418548. 18 Ocak 2021 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi (PDF). Erişim tarihi: 7 Haziran 2021. The emergence of English with a genuine global presence therefore has a significance which goes well beyond this particular language. Because there are no precedents for languages achieving this level of use (if we exclude Latin, which was in a sense 'global' when the world was much smaller), we do not know what happens to them in such circumstances.
^ García, Adolfo M. (2 Ocak 2014). "Neurocognitive determinants of performance variability among world-language users". Journal of World Languages. 1 (1): 60-77. doi:10.1080/21698252.2014.893671 . ISSN 2169-8252. the notion of world language has been variously defined
^ Wright, Roger (2012), Hernández-Campoy, Juan Manuel; Conde-Silvestre, Juan Camilo (Ed.), "Convergence and Divergence in World Languages", The Handbook of Language and Globalization, John Wiley & Sons, s. 552, doi:10.1002/9781118257227.ch30, ISBN 978-1-4051-9068-8, 16 Nisan 2021 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi, erişim tarihi: 16 Nisan 2021, There is no generally agreed precise definition of what counts as a 'World' Language. For the purposes of this chapter, they can be defined as languages spoken over a wide geographical area, often as a result of previous colonization, and in many cases by native speakers of some other language. The category now includes Spanish, Portuguese, French, and English, but with reference to historically earlier periods the label has been applied to Latin [...]
^ ^a ^b ^c Mufwene, Salikoko S. (7 Ekim 2010), Coupland, Nikolas (Ed.), "Globalization, Global English, and World English(es): Myths and Facts", The Handbook of Language and Globalization, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, s. 42, doi:10.1002/9781444324068.ch1, ISBN 978-1-4443-2406-8, By the middle of the twentieth century, a few European colonial languages had emerged as 'world languages,' in the sense of languages spoken as vernaculars or as lingua francas outside their homelands and by populations other than those ethnically or nationally associated with them. These included English, French, Russian, and Spanish.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Benrabah, Mohamed (2 Ocak 2014). "Competition between four "world" languages in Algeria". Journal of World Languages. 1 (1): 38-59. doi:10.1080/21698252.2014.893676 . ISSN 2169-8252.
^ Mar-Molinero, Clare (1 Ocak 2004). "Spanish as a world language: Language and identity in a global era". Spanish in Context (İngilizce). 1 (1): 8. doi:10.1075/sic.1.1.03mar. ISSN 1571-0718. 18 Nisan 2021 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 7 Haziran 2021. By 'international' I am referring to a language spoken as a mother tongue in more than one national context. This is not necessarily (or normally) the same as a 'global' language. To define the latter it is necessary to identify certain criteria [...] The following 'tests' which I propose as necessary to meet the definition of 'global' language are based loosely on the work of David Crystal (1997) and David Graddol (1997) in respect of English as a global language. We need to ask such questions as: [...]
^ Ammon, Ulrich (7 Ekim 2010), Coupland, Nikolas (Ed.), "World Languages: Trends and Futures", The Handbook of Language and Globalization, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, ss. 102-103, doi:10.1002/9781444324068.ch4, ISBN 978-1-4443-2406-8, A concept of 'world language' which is useful for our purposes would be based on its global function, which means 'use for global communication' and can be specified further [...]
^ Ammon, Ulrich (7 Ekim 2010), Coupland, Nikolas (Ed.), "World Languages: Trends and Futures", The Handbook of Language and Globalization, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, ss. 104-116, doi:10.1002/9781444324068.ch4, ISBN 978-1-4443-2406-8
^ Mufwene, Salikoko S. (7 Ekim 2010), Coupland, Nikolas (Ed.), "Globalization, Global English, and World English(es): Myths and Facts", The Handbook of Language and Globalization, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, s. 43, doi:10.1002/9781444324068.ch1, ISBN 978-1-4443-2406-8, overlooking variation across nations, Arabic counts as a 'world language' to the extent that it is used as a religious/ritual language wherever Islam is practiced; but it does not have that status of lingua franca associated with English and French as languages of business/trade and scholarship which are also used by non-native speakers. Arabic is thus reduced to the same status as Spanish, which outside Spain is spoken mostly in Latin America, as the dominant vernacular.
^ Ammon, Ulrich (2010), "World Languages: Trends and Futures", The Handbook of Language and Globalization (İngilizce), John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, ss. 116-117, doi:10.1002/9781444324068.ch4, ISBN 978-1-4443-2406-8, There is virtually no descriptive parameter or indicator for the international or global rank of a language which, if applied to today's languages world-wide, does not place English at the top
^ Mufwene, Salikoko S. (7 Ekim 2010), Coupland, Nikolas (Ed.), "Globalization, Global English, and World English(es): Myths and Facts", The Handbook of Language and Globalization, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, s. 43, doi:10.1002/9781444324068.ch1, ISBN 978-1-4443-2406-8, It thus appears that what has made English the foremost "world language" is its function as lingua franca
^ Ammon, Ulrich (7 Ekim 2010), Coupland, Nikolas (Ed.), "World Languages: Trends and Futures", The Handbook of Language and Globalization, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, s. 103, doi:10.1002/9781444324068.ch4, ISBN 978-1-4443-2406-8, It is such usage, as lingua franca, that distinguishes English most noticeably from other languages.
^ Crystal, David (1995). The Cambridge encyclopedia of the English language. Internet Archive. Cambridge [England] ; New York : Cambridge University Press. s. 106. ISBN 978-0-521-40179-1. English is now the dominant or official language in over 60 countries (see the table on p. 109), and is represented in every continent and in the three major oceans – Atlantic (e.g. St Helena), Indian (e.g. Seychelles), and Pacific (e.g. Hawaii). It is this spread of representation which makes the application of the term 'world language' a reality.
^ Ammon, Ulrich (7 Ekim 2010), Coupland, Nikolas (Ed.), "World Languages: Trends and Futures", The Handbook of Language and Globalization, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, s. 102, doi:10.1002/9781444324068.ch4, ISBN 978-1-4443-2406-8, We would nevertheless include Spanish into the plurality of world languages with which we deal here, on the grounds that one finds those who speak it as a foreign language in countries around the world.
^ Mufwene, Salikoko S. (7 Ekim 2010), Coupland, Nikolas (Ed.), "Globalization, Global English, and World English(es): Myths and Facts", The Handbook of Language and Globalization, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, ss. 42-43, doi:10.1002/9781444324068.ch1, ISBN 978-1-4443-2406-8, By the middle of the twentieth century, a few European colonial languages had emerged as 'world languages,' in the sense of languages spoken as vernaculars or as lingua francas outside their homelands and by populations other than those ethnically or nationally associated with them. These included English, French, Russian, and Spanish. [...] Arabic counts as a 'world language' to the extent that it is used as a religious/ritual language wherever Islam is practiced; but it does not have that status of lingua franca associated with English and French as languages of business/trade and scholarship which are also used by non-native speakers. Arabic is thus reduced to the same status as Spanish, which outside Spain is spoken mostly in Latin America, as the dominant vernacular.

[1] Ammon, Ulrich (7 Ekim 2010), Coupland, Nikolas (Ed.), "World Languages: Trends and Futures", The Handbook of Language and Globalization, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, s. 101, doi:10.1002/9781444324068.ch4, ISBN 978-1-4443-2406-8

[2] Ammon, Ulrich (1997), Stevenson, Patrick (Ed.), "To What Extent is German an International Language?", The German Language and the Real World: Sociolinguistic, Cultural, and Pragmatic Perspectives on Contemporary German (İngilizce), Clarendon Press, ss. 25-53, ISBN 978-0-19-823738-9, 9 Mayıs 2021 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi, erişim tarihi: 7 Haziran 2021

[:7-3] Mejía, Anne-Marie (2002). Power, Prestige, and Bilingualism: International Perspectives on Elite Bilingual Education (İngilizce). Multilingual Matters. ss. 47-49. ISBN 978-1-85359-590-5. 9 Mayıs 2021 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 7 Haziran 2021. 'international language' or 'world language' [...] The following languages of wider communication, that may be used as first or as second or foreign languages, are generally recognised: English, German, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, Arabic, Russian and Chinese.

[4] Ammon, Ulrich (1989). Status and Function of Languages and Language Varieties (İngilizce). Walter de Gruyter. s. 422. ISBN 978-3-11-086025-2. 10 Mayıs 2021 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 13 Şubat 2021. By the term world language approximately the following can be understood: Firstly, [...]. Secondly, international planned languages (e.g Esperanto, Ido, Interlingua).

[5] Wright, Roger (2012), Hernández-Campoy, Juan Manuel; Conde-Silvestre, Juan Camilo (Ed.), "Convergence and Divergence in World Languages", The Handbook of Language and Globalization, John Wiley & Sons, s. 552, doi:10.1002/9781118257227.ch30, ISBN 978-1-4051-9068-8, 16 Nisan 2021 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi, erişim tarihi: 7 Haziran 2021, There is no generally agreed precise definition of what counts as a 'World' Language. For the purposes of this chapter, they can be defined as languages spoken over a wide geographical area, often as a result of previous colonization, and in many cases by native speakers of some other language. The category now includes Spanish, Portuguese, French, and English, but with reference to historically earlier periods the label has been applied to Latin [...]

[6] Mufwene, Salikoko S. (7 Ekim 2010), Coupland, Nikolas (Ed.), "Globalization, Global English, and World English(es): Myths and Facts", The Handbook of Language and Globalization, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, s. 42, doi:10.1002/9781444324068.ch1, ISBN 978-1-4443-2406-8, I submit that, as in the case of that earlier 'world language,' Latin, it was the association with trade and (more) lucrative business that favored English over its competitors, both in the United States and around the world.

[7] Crystal, David (2003). English as a global language (PDF) (2. bas.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. s. 190. ISBN 0-511-07862-5. OCLC 57418548. 18 Ocak 2021 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi (PDF). Erişim tarihi: 7 Haziran 2021. The emergence of English with a genuine global presence therefore has a significance which goes well beyond this particular language. Because there are no precedents for languages achieving this level of use (if we exclude Latin, which was in a sense 'global' when the world was much smaller), we do not know what happens to them in such circumstances.

[:12-8] García, Adolfo M. (2 Ocak 2014). "Neurocognitive determinants of performance variability among world-language users". Journal of World Languages. 1 (1): 60-77. doi:10.1080/21698252.2014.893671 . ISSN 2169-8252. the notion of world language has been variously defined

[:82-9] Wright, Roger (2012), Hernández-Campoy, Juan Manuel; Conde-Silvestre, Juan Camilo (Ed.), "Convergence and Divergence in World Languages", The Handbook of Language and Globalization, John Wiley & Sons, s. 552, doi:10.1002/9781118257227.ch30, ISBN 978-1-4051-9068-8, 16 Nisan 2021 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi, erişim tarihi: 16 Nisan 2021, There is no generally agreed precise definition of what counts as a 'World' Language. For the purposes of this chapter, they can be defined as languages spoken over a wide geographical area, often as a result of previous colonization, and in many cases by native speakers of some other language. The category now includes Spanish, Portuguese, French, and English, but with reference to historically earlier periods the label has been applied to Latin [...]

[:3-10] Mufwene, Salikoko S. (7 Ekim 2010), Coupland, Nikolas (Ed.), "Globalization, Global English, and World English(es): Myths and Facts", The Handbook of Language and Globalization, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, s. 42, doi:10.1002/9781444324068.ch1, ISBN 978-1-4443-2406-8, By the middle of the twentieth century, a few European colonial languages had emerged as 'world languages,' in the sense of languages spoken as vernaculars or as lingua francas outside their homelands and by populations other than those ethnically or nationally associated with them. These included English, French, Russian, and Spanish.

[:2-11] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Benrabah, Mohamed (2 Ocak 2014). "Competition between four "world" languages in Algeria". Journal of World Languages. 1 (1): 38-59. doi:10.1080/21698252.2014.893676 . ISSN 2169-8252.

[12] Mar-Molinero, Clare (1 Ocak 2004). "Spanish as a world language: Language and identity in a global era". Spanish in Context (İngilizce). 1 (1): 8. doi:10.1075/sic.1.1.03mar. ISSN 1571-0718. 18 Nisan 2021 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 7 Haziran 2021. By 'international' I am referring to a language spoken as a mother tongue in more than one national context. This is not necessarily (or normally) the same as a 'global' language. To define the latter it is necessary to identify certain criteria [...] The following 'tests' which I propose as necessary to meet the definition of 'global' language are based loosely on the work of David Crystal (1997) and David Graddol (1997) in respect of English as a global language. We need to ask such questions as: [...]

[13] Ammon, Ulrich (7 Ekim 2010), Coupland, Nikolas (Ed.), "World Languages: Trends and Futures", The Handbook of Language and Globalization, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, ss. 102-103, doi:10.1002/9781444324068.ch4, ISBN 978-1-4443-2406-8, A concept of 'world language' which is useful for our purposes would be based on its global function, which means 'use for global communication' and can be specified further [...]

[14] Ammon, Ulrich (7 Ekim 2010), Coupland, Nikolas (Ed.), "World Languages: Trends and Futures", The Handbook of Language and Globalization, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, ss. 104-116, doi:10.1002/9781444324068.ch4, ISBN 978-1-4443-2406-8

[15] Mufwene, Salikoko S. (7 Ekim 2010), Coupland, Nikolas (Ed.), "Globalization, Global English, and World English(es): Myths and Facts", The Handbook of Language and Globalization, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, s. 43, doi:10.1002/9781444324068.ch1, ISBN 978-1-4443-2406-8, overlooking variation across nations, Arabic counts as a 'world language' to the extent that it is used as a religious/ritual language wherever Islam is practiced; but it does not have that status of lingua franca associated with English and French as languages of business/trade and scholarship which are also used by non-native speakers. Arabic is thus reduced to the same status as Spanish, which outside Spain is spoken mostly in Latin America, as the dominant vernacular.

[16] Ammon, Ulrich (2010), "World Languages: Trends and Futures", The Handbook of Language and Globalization (İngilizce), John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, ss. 116-117, doi:10.1002/9781444324068.ch4, ISBN 978-1-4443-2406-8, There is virtually no descriptive parameter or indicator for the international or global rank of a language which, if applied to today's languages world-wide, does not place English at the top

[:02-17] Mufwene, Salikoko S. (7 Ekim 2010), Coupland, Nikolas (Ed.), "Globalization, Global English, and World English(es): Myths and Facts", The Handbook of Language and Globalization, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, s. 43, doi:10.1002/9781444324068.ch1, ISBN 978-1-4443-2406-8, It thus appears that what has made English the foremost "world language" is its function as lingua franca

[18] Ammon, Ulrich (7 Ekim 2010), Coupland, Nikolas (Ed.), "World Languages: Trends and Futures", The Handbook of Language and Globalization, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, s. 103, doi:10.1002/9781444324068.ch4, ISBN 978-1-4443-2406-8, It is such usage, as lingua franca, that distinguishes English most noticeably from other languages.

[19] Crystal, David (1995). The Cambridge encyclopedia of the English language. Internet Archive. Cambridge [England] ; New York : Cambridge University Press. s. 106. ISBN 978-0-521-40179-1. English is now the dominant or official language in over 60 countries (see the table on p. 109), and is represented in every continent and in the three major oceans – Atlantic (e.g. St Helena), Indian (e.g. Seychelles), and Pacific (e.g. Hawaii). It is this spread of representation which makes the application of the term 'world language' a reality.

[20] Ammon, Ulrich (7 Ekim 2010), Coupland, Nikolas (Ed.), "World Languages: Trends and Futures", The Handbook of Language and Globalization, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, s. 102, doi:10.1002/9781444324068.ch4, ISBN 978-1-4443-2406-8, We would nevertheless include Spanish into the plurality of world languages with which we deal here, on the grounds that one finds those who speak it as a foreign language in countries around the world.

[21] Mufwene, Salikoko S. (7 Ekim 2010), Coupland, Nikolas (Ed.), "Globalization, Global English, and World English(es): Myths and Facts", The Handbook of Language and Globalization, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, ss. 42-43, doi:10.1002/9781444324068.ch1, ISBN 978-1-4443-2406-8, By the middle of the twentieth century, a few European colonial languages had emerged as 'world languages,' in the sense of languages spoken as vernaculars or as lingua francas outside their homelands and by populations other than those ethnically or nationally associated with them. These included English, French, Russian, and Spanish. [...] Arabic counts as a 'world language' to the extent that it is used as a religious/ritual language wherever Islam is practiced; but it does not have that status of lingua franca associated with English and French as languages of business/trade and scholarship which are also used by non-native speakers. Arabic is thus reduced to the same status as Spanish, which outside Spain is spoken mostly in Latin America, as the dominant vernacular.

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